Parallels in Allophonic Variation in Korean and Thai

I have recently started learning Thai. In several ways, it is unlike any language I've studied before: it is tonal, and lacks any grammatical inflection. However, the sound system strangely reminds me a lot of Korean. In particular, both languages have a similar use of allophones depending on whether a phoneme occurs at the beginning or end of a syllable. A lot of these similarities stem from the fact that both Korean and Thai have a strict syllable structure. I am not suggesting any formal relationship between the two languages, though: these are simply my observations.

Aspiration and voicing

Both Korean and Thai have contrastive aspiration on the sounds /p/, /t/, and /k/. In both languages, when a stop sound occurs at the end of a syllable, it is unreleased. Therefore, when the aspirated phonemes /pʰ/, /tʰ/, and /kʰ/ occur at the end of a syllable, they lose their aspirated quality in both languages.

• Korean ㅌ: initial 털 /tʰʌl/ "hair" vs. final 팥 /pʰat̚/ "red bean" 
• Thai ท: initial ทอง /tʰɔːŋ/ "gold" vs. final บาท /bà:t̚/ "baht"

A similar thing happens to voiced sounds, which become their voiceless equivalents at the end of a syllable. Note that in Korean, these sounds are only voiced when surrounded by other voiced sounds.

• K. ㅂ: medial 아버지 /abʌd͡ʑi/ "father" vs. final 입 /ip̚/ "mouth, lips"
  
• T. ด: initial ดี /di:/ "good" vs. final เจ็ด /t͡ɕèt̚/ "seven"

Alternation of s, j, and ch with t at the end of syllables

When the sounds /s/, /t͡ɕ/, and /t͡ɕʰ/ appear at the end of the syllable, in both Korean and Thai, all three become /t̚/.

• K. ㅅ: initial 산 /san/ "mountain" vs. final 맛 /mat̚/ "flavor"
• T. ศ: initial ศูนย์ /sǔːn/ "zero" vs. final ประเทศ /prà tʰêːt̚/ "country"

• K. ㅈ: initial 잠 /t͡ɕam/ "sleep" vs. final 낮 /nat̚/ "daytime"
• T. จ:  initial เจ็ด /t͡ɕèt̚/ "seven" vs. final ปีศาจ /piː sàːt̚/ "ghost"

• K. ㅊ: initial 창문 /t͡ɕʰaŋ mun/ "window" vs. final 꽃 /k͈ot̚/ "flower"
• T. ช: initial ช้าง /t͡ɕʰáːŋ/ "elephant" vs. final ธวัช /tʰá wát̚/ "flag"

Loss of "palatal" n at the beginning of syllables

Except in slang and recent loanwords, Modern Korean forbids word-initial ㄴ when followed by the vowel i or semivowel y. For example, the word for "teeth" used to be written and pronounced 니 (ni), but the ㄴ has been dropped: the word is now written and pronounced 이 (i).

Similarly, Thai has a letter (ญ) that used to be pronounced like the Spanish ñ. However, the nasal quality of this sound has been lost at the beginning of syllables, and is now pronounced like y. For example, the word หญิง "woman" is pronounced /jǐŋ/.

At the end of syllables, ญ has retained its nasal quality while losing its palatal quality to become an n sound, as in the word เจริญ "to prosper," pronounced /t͡ɕà rɤːn/. 

As a result, both Korean and Thai now have an underlying initial nasal sound whose only trace is an initial palatal sound (i or y), despite this same sound being fully present as n at the end of syllables. 

Multiple final consonants

Syllables in Korean and Thai can only end in one consonant max. Some words are written with two consonants at the end, but only one of them is pronounced. However, if another syllable is attached to the end of these words, the silent consonant resurfaces and is pronounced in that following syllable. In Korean, this only happens if the following syllable starts with a vowel.

• K: 값 /kap̚/ "price" (written kaps) + 이 /i/ -> 값이 /kap̚ ɕi/ "price (subject)"
  
• T: จักร /t͡ɕàk̚/ "wheel" (written jakr) + ยาน /jaːn/ -> จักรยาน /t͡ɕàk̚ kra jaːn/ "bicycle"

Variation between r/l and n

In Korean, r and l are represented by the same letter (ㄹ) and are considered allophones of the same sound, while in Thai, they are two distinct sounds. Despite this difference, in both languages, the  

r/l sounds may sound like n in certain positions. 

In Korean, this occurs in Sino-Korean words that should technically, due to their etymology, begin with ㄹ, but are written and pronounced as ㄴ (n) instead. Additionally, when ㄹ follows certain consonants, it is pronounced like n even though it is still written ㄹ.

• 勞動 "labor" -> 로동 (still written and pronounced as rodong in North Korea) -> 노동 (nodong in South Korea) 
• 心理 "mentality" -> 심리 (written shimri) but pronounced 심니 (shimni)

In Thai, this variation occurs at the end of a syllable instead of the beginning.

• ร (r): รัก /rák̚/ "love" vs. อาหาร /aː hǎːn/ "food"
• ล (l): ลิง /liŋ/ "monkey" vs. ตาล /taːn/ "palm tree" 

Conclusion

Despite being very different languages, Korean and Thai share quite a few phonological processes. Please let me know if there are any mistakes in this post.

Reversed Learning Curve in Finnish

It is well-known that with learning any new language, there comes a learning curve. Basically, when you start learning a new language, you will rapidly pick up on the essentials of the language. However, once you have mastered the basics, the rate at which you learn begins to slow down significantly. This is often referred to as a "plateau" in language learning. This stage in learning can be frustrating, because it can feel like you aren't progressing at all despite your hard efforts.

However, in my experience of learning Finnish, in a way, the learning curve occurred in the opposite direction. In other words, diving into the language head-first was considerably more difficult than usual, but at a certain point, things just seemed to "click" and it felt like suddenly everything started to make sense. Part of this is undoubtedly because Finnish is initially quite alien to a native English speaker. Unlike in learning many other European languages, even the most basic words and phrases may not look familiar at all, and even intimidating. There are few obvious cognates to take comfort in, and the beginner will notice immediately that the sound system and basic grammar of Finnish is dissimilar to most European languages, including its geographical neighbors Swedish and Russian. Forming even the most basic sentences requires knowledge of difficult concepts such as consonant gradation and the partitive case, which is nothing like the "Romance partitive." It takes a while to get acclimated to Finnish in general, and the grammatical rules are not easy.

When I began Finnish, I focused on grammatical rules first, quite simply because the grammar was what had drawn me to the language in the first place. However, because I studied mainly grammar at first, Finnish remained a blur for a while. I could only form basic sentences, and listening comprehension wasn't even on my radar yet. However, after I had grasped most grammar concepts and finally started to learn the language itself, everything seemed to fall into place, and Finnish was no longer intimidating. Because I had gotten the mechanics out of the way, it was easy to see the concepts applied. Another reason why Finnish became much easier was because when I started crossing over into colloquial Finnish, it became clear that its grammar was not as complex as formal written Finnish. That isn't to say that you shouldn't worry about the precise grammar rules. In my opinion, having a firm foundation of the "grammatically correct" forms and then learning the simplified colloquial forms later on is much more efficient than going the other way around. Part of this is because colloquial forms vary based on factors like the formality of a situation, and the dialect and age of the speaker. If you overlook the standard forms, you simply won't have any reference or context for why a suffix may have many seemingly irregular variants.

I'm not necessarily advising anyone to study grammar rules in-depth first. People with different learning styles may find this method to be uncomfortable. But, I think in my case it was worth it in the long run. 

I found it interesting that for Finnish, the typical learning curve was, in a way, reversed. I am curious if any other language learners have had a similar experience with Finnish or other languages.

Finnish Difficulty

Finnish often appears on the lists of hardest languages to learn for English speakers. In this post, I am going to discuss different aspects of the Finnish language and their difficulties. Of course, each individual finds different things to be difficult. What follows are simply based on my own experience of learning Finnish.

Pronunciation

Finnish pronunciation is pretty simple; Finnish has fewer native sounds than the surrounding Indo-European languages. I find Finnish pronunciation to be very precise: each sound almost always sounds the same. In other words, there are very few allophones, unlike in English. The "t" sound in English can sound very different based on where it lies in a word:

• tin: aspirated "t"
• water: flapped "r"
• button: glottal stop

In Finnish, there are few of these pronunciation subtleties, so it is not difficult to master. On the other hand, consonant and vowel length are very important, unlike in English. My grammar textbook (Finnish: An Essential Grammar) gives this example:

Sometimes, long sounds come after each other consecutively and repeatedly, for example: liikkeessään, "in his/her/their shop." These can be awkward to pronounce. 

I initially found many Finnish diphthongs to be awkward to pronounce as well, including yi, äi, öi, ey, äy, öy, and yö. You get used to these quickly, though.

Alphabet/Orthography

Finnish orthography was designed so that one sound matches to one letter nearly perfectly, making reading and writing words very easy. Once you learn the alphabet, you can write any word after hearing it. Also, you can pronounce any new word perfectly, making learning vocabulary easier as well.

Grammar

Here is where Finnish gets its reputation for being a difficult language. Before you can inflect a Finnish word, you need to know vowel harmony, consonant gradation, vowel changes, as well as many different patterns of inflection for both nouns and verbs. Vowel harmony is actually pretty simple, but consonant gradation can take a while to get used to. When suffixes are added to words, sometimes consonants alternate between strong and weak forms, depending on the suffix. When you see a new word, you cannot always know for sure if it gradates.

• katu ("street") -> kadut ("streets")

However:

• auto ("car") -> autot ("cars")

Consonant gradation becomes difficult to wrap your head around when certain words gradate backwards. This usually happens when inflecting a word derived from another word, or from a word that ends with a consonant. 

• koe ("test") -> kokeet ("tests")
• hammas ("tooth") -> hampaat ("teeth")

Vowel changes that occur before suffixes can be simple, but when applied to nouns with 3 syllables, the rules become so complex that there's almost no use memorizing them, and it's better to just memorize what vowel changes happen in each word you learn.

There are 6 verb inflection types. Basic verb conjugation is actually pretty simple, because personal suffixes are the same for all 6 types. However, some forms such as the passive can be tricky. Luckily there are very few irregular verbs. 

Finnish nouns inflect in 15 cases, something that many tend to freak out about. However, cases in Finnish are not like cases in Latin. The plural forms and singular forms are based on the same suffix, and most of the cases are added to words in exactly the same way, making them almost like postpositions. Plus, 3 cases are rarely used except in fixed expressions. In addition, Finnish has no gender to worry about.

There are technically 51 different inflection types recognized by KOTUS (the Finnish government institute for language), but the number makes it sound much harder than it really is. These "types" do not have entirely different endings, as mentioned above. Almost all of the case endings are consistent, except a few that may vary a little depending on which inflection type a word follows. About 15 of the 51 types are rare or very rare, and many are almost identical to each other. Two of the types are just redundant rules for compound words, so the number of types you need to worry about is reduced greatly. 

Finnish grammar is not as difficult as some make it out to be. There are popular posts that have circulated through the Internet that show examples of the Finnish language that makes it seem absolutely ridiculous. 

Like I mentioned before, Finnish inflection isn't like inflection found in most other European languages. The difficulty in Finnish inflection is usually not the endings, but rather the changes in the base word. For the most part, endings are so easily and logically attached to a word that they barely even be considered to create "new forms" of a word like the comic above suggests.

Other posts show extremely long Finnish words like epäjärjestelmällistyttämättömyydelläänsäkäänköhän, but even a native speaker will find it hard to explain what that even means. Words like these are never used in daily speech or writing. 

Even though Finnish grammar is definitely difficult, it's best to simply learn it without worrying too much about difficulty.

Vocabulary 

As Finnish is not an Indo-European language, most basic words will seem alien. That isn't to say that Finnish doesn't have loanwords from other European languages; it has many. However, many old loanwords were altered so that they followed the native Finnish sound system. This makes them seem just as alien as native Finnish words (for example, Swedish strand "beach" was borrowed into Finnish as ranta). This may prove difficult for learners of popular European languages (French, Spanish, German, etc.) who are used to inferring meaning when reading or listening to a new target language.

Luckily for the learner, recently there has been a large influx of English words, and more recent loanwords in general haven't been altered the same way old loanwords have, making them much more similar to the original words. Another positive is that Finnish has many productive suffixes that make learning related vocabulary easy.

• kirja "book"
• kirjallinen "literary"
• kirjallisuus "literature"
• kirjasto "library"
• kirjanen "booklet"
• kirjasin "font"
• kirjata "to book"
• kirjoittaa "to write"
• kirje "letter"

Standard vs. Colloquial Language

While all languages have some difference between the standard language and the colloquial language, the difference in Finnish can be quite vast. 

"Did you know that we have already eaten?"
Standard Finnish: Oletko sinä tiennyt, että olemme jo syöneet?
Colloquial Finnish: Ooksä tienny, et me ollaan jo syöty?

"We were there for twenty-four hours." 

Standard Finnish: Olimme siellä kaksikymmentäneljä tuntia.
Colloquial Finnish: Me oltiin siel kakskytnel tuntii.

The grammatical rules from a textbook don't always stay true when people speak and write colloquially. Certain consonants and vowels are dropped, pronoun use changes, and some common verbs have shortened forms. These changes vary between speakers and dialects. If one only studies formal Finnish, they will be very lost when faced with the language used in daily conversations and on the Internet. However, after learning some of the common differences in colloquial language and being exposed to it (especially through the Internet), using it yourself isn't that difficult. It makes sense that a grammatically complicated language would have a somewhat simplified colloquial form.

Resources

Finnish would not be as difficult as it is if it were a more popular language. Popular languages such as Spanish, French, German, and Japanese have plenty of language learning resources. Finnish, on the other hand, only has around 5 million speakers, and isn't exactly the most useful language in a global context. Finding resources for learning Finnish can be difficult, especially for more advanced learners. It is also hard to find any other learners (or native speakers) to practice with if you aren't living in Finland.

Conclusion     

Finnish can definitely be bewildering for a native English speaker or anyone only used to Indo-European languages. However, difficulty is subjective. Perhaps you may find the logic and regularity of Finnish grammar refreshing compared to the seemingly arbitrary rules found in many European languages. If you are interested in a language, it is best to just learn it without worrying about its difficulty. 

Feel free to share your thoughts in the comments about Finnish difficulty. 

Introduction

Hello, my name is Ryan. I'm 15 years old, and I love learning languages. I've created this blog so I can start sharing my language learning journey. Here is a list of the languages I have experience with:

English is my native language, as I've lived in the US for my whole life. There's not really much to talk about here.

Korean is partially my native language, but I am far from fluent. My parents are immigrants from South Korea, so I grew up hearing the language and speaking a little with some relatives. I can understand basic Korean, but my vocabulary isn't large enough to understand material as advanced as Korean news broadcasts. My spoken Korean is pretty poor, as I was never fully immersed in the language as a child. However, it is still technically a native language for me because I can understand certain phrases instinctively without being able to explain why they work grammatically or even semantically. Even though I have Korean-speaking family members to practice with, I find it difficult to improve my Korean because I just find it very awkward to speak Korean to them when I've always spoken to them in English. It's also difficult to study it on my own, which I usually do for other languages. Since I have some native background, it's difficult to learn it how I learn other languages that are entirely foreign to me. I still use Korean occasionally, but I don't plan on actively improving my Korean in the near future, because of the frustrations I've mentioned, and my interests currently lie elsewhere.

Japanese has always been an interesting language to me. Besides English and Korean, it's the language I have the longest relationship with. From a young age, I was intrigued by Japanese culture and language. I learned hiragana and katakana on my own when I was in elementary school. I casually learned about Japanese grammar, and I realized how similar it was to Korean grammar. For a short period in middle school, I started studying Japanese seriously, but for some reason I still couldn't really speak it, or form my own sentences in my head. This is probably because a lot of my Japanese knowledge that I had acquired as a kid had remained passive, and it was just difficult to put it into active use. In my freshman year of high school (which just ended), I took Japanese 1, and I found it far too easy, so I am going to skip Japanese 2 and take Japanese 3 next year. The class has helped me start forming my own sentences. I hope this trend continues in the future. My goal is to be conversational, or around B1.

Turkish is a language I no longer learn or review, but it was the first language I studied seriously. When I was in middle school, I had read on online forums that Turkish grammar was similar to Korean grammar, and I thought it would be interesting to try learning it. Before I knew it, I had been swept up by the language. It was the first time that I had been dedicated to learning a language just for fun, and I had the realization that learning languages gave me great pleasure. Learning the language opened up an entire culture, and I found it exhilarating. At one point I was studying Turkish consistently, every day. I could have basic conversations with a classmate who spoke Turkish. Perhaps learning so much burned me out, because at one point I suddenly wanted a total break from Turkish. I haven't studied it or reviewed it in at least a year, and I don't have plans to anytime soon. I've forgotten most of my Turkish. However, Turkish was really my gateway into learning other languages seriously.   

Finnish is the language that I am currently the most dedicated to learning. I have learned it on-and-off for about one and a half years. I began learning a little Finnish just because it seemed interesting, but now that I've learned it for quite a while, I've gotten to admire Finnish culture and Finland. I think what has drawn me to learn Finnish is how different it is from most other European languages. I also find the sound of the language to be simple and beautiful. I hope to continue improving my Finnish, and my goal is to be conversationally fluent; somewhere around B2 or C1.  

Italian gave me the opportunity to use language in travel. Last summer, my family took a trip to Italy. Before that, I had never been to any other country that speaks a language besides English. I also had never thought about learning Italian until my parents told me about the trip. I decided to learn Italian so that I could use it on the trip, and given the circumstances, it was the quickest I had started and stopped studying a language. Italian kind of interrupted my plan to study Finnish. Anyhow, I studied Italian for about 2-3 months before the trip, and compared to the other languages I had studied, it was pretty easy, and I acquired it quickly. I enjoyed the trip immensely, and I was able to do things like order food and call a restaurant in Italian. It was great to be able to improve on my Italian daily by being surrounded by it all the time. Speaking a little Italian helped open up new conversations with Italian people, even though they were in English. When I came back home, I went back to learning Finnish, and realized how quickly I was forgetting Italian. Although I do a little review, I haven't studied it in about a year. Italian is definitely a language that I want to come back to. I am also planning to self-study for the AP Italian Language and Culture test. My goal is to be conversational, or around B1.

Here are some languages that I may want to learn in the future:

Hungarian has been an interest to me ever since I started learning Finnish, as they are both part of the Uralic language family.

Welsh, in my opinion, sounds beautiful, like some sort of fantasy language. It would be interesting to learn, as Celtic languages are known to be a bit peculiar to speakers of other European languages.

Thai has a beautiful script and would open up travel opportunities to a beautiful country. It seems like it would be very difficult though, as I have never learned a tonal language before.

Greenlandic has struck me as very interesting for quite a while. However, it being a very small language, I doubt I could seriously learn it unless I went to Greenland and learned Danish first, which is a language that I admittedly have little interest in.